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The most useful information I
ever learned in school was theories of child development. I first read
about Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg during my undergraduate studies
and revisited those theorists throughout the rest of my education. I
still continue to refer to this information and hope you find it interesting
as well. There have been volumes written on and by each of these men.
Most newer theories have stemmed, at least in part, from the information
listed below.
This is just a very basic outline of what they have to say.
Erik Erikson's 8
Stages of Psychosocial Development
| Stage |
Ages |
Basic Conflict |
Important Event |
Summary |
| 1. Oral-Sensory |
Birth to 12 to 18 months |
Trust vs. Mistrust |
Feeding |
If the infant doesn't form
a trusting, loving bond with the primary caregiver, a sense of mistrust
develops. |
| 2. Muscular-Anal |
18 months to 3 years |
Autonomy vs.
Shame/Doubt |
Toilet training |
The toddler's focus is
on the developing fine and gross motor skills and bowel/bladder
control (autonomy). The child learns control but may develop shame
and doubt if the learning process is not completed in a positive,
self affirming way. |
| 3. Locomotor |
3 to 6 years |
Initiative vs.
Guilt |
Independence |
The child continues to
become more of an independent individual and to take more initiative,
but still needs to negotiate doing this appropriately.
If not permitted and encouraged to do so, this may lead to guilt
feelings. |
| 4. Latency |
6 to 12 years |
Industry vs. Inferiority |
School |
The child must deal with
demands of learning new skills (industry)or risk a sense of inferiority,
failure and incompetence. |
| 5.Adolescence |
12 to 18 years |
Identity vs.
Role Confusion |
Peer relationships |
The teenager must achieve
a sense of identity in future occupation, gender/sex roles, politics,
and religion or he will become confused and frustrated. |
| 6. Young Adulthood |
19 to 40 years |
Intimacy vs.
Isolation |
Love relationships |
The young adult must develop
intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation. |
| 7. Middle Adulthood |
40 to 65 years |
Generativity vs. Stagnation |
Parenting |
Parents must find some
way to satisfy and support the next generation. Childless adults
seek to make some type of impact on others or feel unimportant (stagnation) |
| 8. Maturity |
65 to death |
Ego Integrity vs. Despair |
Reflection on and acceptance
of one's life |
The culmination is a sense
of oneself as one is and of feeling fulfilled. |
Piaget's Stages of
Cognitive Development
| Stage |
Ages |
Description |
| Sensorimotor |
0 to 2 |
reflex Base
coorninate reflexes
|
| Peroperational |
2 to 6/7 |
self Oriented
egocentric
|
| Concrete Operational |
6/7 to 11/12 |
more than 1 point
of view
no abstract problems
can consider some
possible outcomes
|
| Formal Operational |
11/12 and up |
Not everyone reaches
this stage
think abstractly
reason theoretically
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Lawrence Kohlberg's Six Moral
Stages
|
Level I: Preconventional
Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality
Content of Stage:
What is right-
to avoid breaking
rules backed by punishment
obedience for its
own sake
avoiding physical
damage to persons and property
Reasons for doing right-
Avoidance of punishment
the superior power
of authorities
Social Perspective of
Stage-
egocentric point
of view
cannot consider the
interests of others or recognize that they differ from the actors
cannot relate two
points of view
actions are considered
physical rather than in terms of psychological interests of
others
confusion of authoritys
perspective with one's own.
Stage 2: Individualism,
Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange Content of Stage:
What is right-
follows rules when
it is to one's immediate interest
acting to meet one;s
own interests and needs and letting others do the same
right is also fair
(an equal exchange,a deal, an agreement).
Reasons for doing right-
to serve ones own
needs or interests but also recognizes that other people have
their own interests
Social Perspective of
Stage-
concrete individualistic
perspective
aware that everybody
has his own interest and these interests can conflict
understands "right"
isrelative (in the concrete individualistic sense)
Level
II: Conventional
Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and
Interpersonal Conformity Content of Stage:
What is right-
living up to what
is expected by others or generally expect of people in your
role (daughter, mother,
teacher etc.)
being good is important,
including having good motives, showing concern for others
keeping mutual relationships,
such as trust, loyalty, respect, and gratitude
Reasons for doing right-
the need to be a
good person in one's own eyes others
caring for others
belief in the Golden
Rule
desire to maintain
rules and authority which support stereotypical good behavior
Social Perspective of
Stage-
perspective of the
individual in relationships
awareness of shared
feelings, agreements, expectations which are more important
than individual interests
relates points of
view through the concrete Golden Rule, putting oneself in the
other persons's situation
cannot yet consider
generalized system perspective
Stage 4: Social System
and Conscience Content of Stage:
What is right-
fulfilling the actual
duties which have been agreed
laws are upheld
except in extreme cases where they conflict with other fixed
social duties
right is also contributing
to society, the group, or institution
Reasons for doing right-
to keep the institution
going as a whole
to avoid the breakdown
in the system
the imperative of
conscience to meet ones defined obligations
Social Perspective of Stage-
differentiates societal
point of view from interpersonal motives
takes the point
of view of the system that defines roles and rules
considers individual
relations in terms of place in the system
Level III: Postconventional,
or Principled
Stage 5: Social Contract
or Utility and Individual Rights Content of Stage:
What is right-
awareness that people
hold a variety of values and opinions, that most values and
rules are relative to ones group
relative rules should
usually be upheld, in the interest of impartiality and because
they are the social contract
some nonrelative
values and rights like life and liberty, must be upheld in any
society
Reasons for doing right-
a sense of obligation
to law because of one's social contract to make and abide by
laws for the welfare of all and the protection of the rights
of all
contractual commitment,
to family, friendship, trust, and work obligations
concern that laws
and duties be based on the greatest good for the greatest number
Social Perspective of Stage-
prior-to-society
perspective
perspective of a
rational individual aware of values and rights prior to social
attachments and contracts
integration of perspectives
by formal agreement, contract, objective impartiality, and due
process
considers moral
and legal points of view, recognizes that they sometimes conflict
and finds integration difficult
Stage 6: Universal Ethical
Principles Content of Stage:
What is right
follows self-chosen
ethical principles
particular laws
or social agreements are usually valid because they rest on
principles
yhen laws violate
principles, one acts in accordance with the principle
principles are universal
principles of justice, human rights and the dignity of human
beings as individuals.
Reasons for doing right-
the belief in the validity
of universal moral principles and a sense of personal commitment
to them
Social Perspective of Stage-
perspective of a
moral point of view from which social arrangements derive
perspective is recognizing
the nature of morality or the fact that persons are ends in
themselves and must be treated as such
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